Climatic Variability and the Transformation of the Indus Valley Civilization

Abstract

This article examines the long-term transformation of the Indus Valley Civilization through the interplay of climatic variability, environmental change, and water resource dynamics. Drawing on archaeological, ecological, and historical evidence, it traces the development of early human settlements from Neolithic sites such as Mehrgarh to the emergence of major urban centers, including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The study follows a scoping systematic literature review method to understand the climate variability and transformation of the Indus Valley Civilization. The study highlights how shifts in rainfall patterns, flooding regimes, and freshwater availability shaped settlement patterns, agricultural systems, and socio-economic life. The findings suggest that environmental processes were central not only to the rise of the Indus Civilization but also to its transformation and eventual de-urbanization, alongside economic and political changes. Particular attention is given to the Indus River as a key ecological force supporting urban development, agricultural productivity, and regional connectivity, as well as influencing patterns of adaptation and mobility. By linking past environmental processes with present-day climatic challenges in the Indus region, the paper concludes and recommends the enduring relationship between water systems, climate variability, and human adaptation across time.